Schools-2
Opportunities abounded for students in the higher classes of secondary school. The very top students would take an examination known as the Abitur. It was a voluntary test; however, holders of the Abitur certificate had a monopoly on higher state positions and university enrollment prior to the turn-of-the-century. Having the certificate of successful completion, the Abiturreifezeugnis, ensured the holder of a successful financial life. There was no higher educational accomplishment than the Abitur. Approximately one-third of the Prussian Gymnasium students successfully passed the Abitur.
There was one disturbing trend among secondary students. Two percent of rural students from the Volksschule were near-sighted and had to wear glasses. Urban Volksschule students were from four to nine percent myopic. The percentage of near-sightedness rose to 44 percent for clerks, merchants, and bookkeepers. Fifty-eight percent of Realgymnasium students needed glasses, and the figure rose to 65 percent for gymnasium students.
Another issue was the overall shortage of secondary school teachers. Teachers received a major pay raise in 1909 that in Prussia made them equal to judges in civil service. After this improvement, their income placed them in the top four percent of wage earners, which helped to alleviate the shortage to some degree. Even so, the shortage worsened during and after the war. Societal norms prepared all German citizens to enter the army. Schoolteachers were civil servants, many of whom had reserve commissions and were known for pushing patriotism. The entire school system was designed to prepare the best and brightest for service in the army.
Officials feared that mothers and pregnant women could not be good teachers, therefore all of the German states forbade women from teaching once they were married. The teaching profession was overwhelmingly male. Women composed 60% of the teachers in France and 75% in Great Britain in the United States, but only 20% in Germany. Most secondary school teachers gave priority to rote memorization and rejected teaching methods that centered on free speaking. Liberal use of sarcasm and corporal punishment, featuring ear-smacking, hair pulling, and caning were common weapons in getting students to accept the authoritative ways of imperial Germany.
Secondary education for girls was available only at schools for young ladies (höhere Töchterschulen), available to very well-to-do families; they had neither a formal curriculum, nor textbooks. In general, girls did not study classical languages, but they did learn foreign languages, conversation, music, and needlework. There were no final examinations, making it difficult to judge the quality of the schools. This was the pinnacle of all schooling for girls; there were no qualification certificates and the goal was to find a suitable husband. In 1901, there were 213 state-run and 656 private secondary schools for girls.
The German secondary school system was influenced by economic pressure. Graduation rates in secondary schools varied significantly. The longer a student stayed in school, the more potential benefits would accrue. Conversely, the longer the period of schooling, the higher the economic burden was to the family supporting the student. There was a definite incentive for students to graduate and start earning their way. As a result, students began leaving the secondary schools to enter the workforce after the Untersekunda (6th secondary) year as they weighed the costs and benefits of remaining in school. Catholic students were generally poorer and were less likely to go into secondary school, and far less likely to attend university.
Receiving a reserve commission was the single most sought-after goal of any student, even those with the Abitur. Because students were also liable for conscription, the law gave the educated student an alternative. Young men could earn the One-Year Certificate and could elect to serve just one-year of compulsory military service on active duty to avoid delaying university education or other employment, provided that they had the means to pay all their own expenses. They were known as one-year volunteers (OYVs, or Einjährig Freiwillige). A student could earn a one-year certificate at the end of the Untersekunda year through an examination. Students in the six-year schools could take this examination, as well as students after their sixth class of the nine-year school. Only one-third of those eligible and possessing a one-year certificate continued on into the military; most were rejected for medical reasons. Students sought the OYV examination certificate, as some employers would hire only those who held one. So a certificate holder at the age of 16 could qualify to bypass two years of active service, and do it in one year. One-year volunteers had the potential to become reserve officers. Secondary school students could continue their education and try to become an active duty officer. At the end of the Obersekunda year, students could take the Primareifezeugnisexamination and qualify to take the top two Prima years in the Gymnasium or enter the army and serve as a Fahnenjunker.
Between 1890 and 1914, imperial German university enrolment exploded from 28,000 to 60,000 students. The increase in size was largely unplanned, unregulated, and led to many worries about an oversupply of university trained graduates. From the mid 1890s, women were allowed to attend university classes, but could not enroll for courses leading to graduation until 1909. By 1914, there were 4,000 women in German universities. However, these numbers meant that imperial Germany had taken the first step towards opening universities to the middle class.
